Effects of single-tree selection on large-diameter tree retention in old-growth Hyrcanian temperate forests
Barra lateral del artículo
Contenido principal del artículo
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4001-9924
Resumen
Large and old trees are key structural components of old-growth temperate forests, yet their persistence under uneven-aged silvicultural systems remains poorly resolved. In many regions, single-tree selection is promoted as a close-to-nature management approach intended to maintain structural complexity, but its long-term consequences for large-diameter tree cohorts remain insufficiently evaluated. We evaluated the effects of repeated single-tree selection on large-diameter tree retention in the Hyrcanian temperate forests (northern Iran) using a landscape-scale case study from the Kheyrud Experimental Forest. Our analysis combined (i) a temporal comparison of permanent inventory plots before harvesting (1982) and after three decades of management (2010) with (ii) a comparison between managed district and adjacent unlogged reference forest, based on a complete inventory covering approximately 1,600 ha. Tree frequency and diameter structure were analyzed with emphasis on large (DBH ≥ 100 cm) and giant (≥ 150 cm) trees. Large-tree density in the managed district declined by 58%, while giant-tree density declined by 83% between 1982 and 2010. Diameter-class distributions further revealed a pronounced truncation of upper-diameter cohorts, whereas stem densities in smaller size classes remained broadly comparable between inventories. In 2010, large-tree density in the managed district remained 63% lower than in the unlogged reference forest. These results indicate that single-tree selection, as implemented in this system, did not maintain the large-tree structure characteristic of mature Hyrcanian forests. Maintaining these structural legacies likely requires explicit retention thresholds for very large trees, longer cutting cycles, and permanent no-harvest areas within managed forest landscapes.
Detalles del artículo
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0.
Referencias
Akaike, H. (2003). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19(6), 716-723. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-1694-0_16
Akhani, H., Djamali, M., Ghorbanalizadeh, A., & Ramezani, E. (2010). Plant biodiversity of Hyrcanian relict forests, N Iran: an overview of the flora, vegetation, palaeoecology and conservation. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 42(1), 231-258.
Azaryan, M., Marvie Mohadjer, M. R., Etemaad, V., Shirvany, A., & Sadeghi, S. M. M. (2015). Morphological characteristics of old trees in Hyrcanian forest (Case study: Pattom and Namkhaneh districts, Kheyrud). Forest and Wood Products, 68(1), 47-59. https://doi.org/10.22059/JFWP.2015.53977
Azaryan, M., Abrari Vajari, K., Marcu, M. V., & Sadeghi, S. M. M. (2026). Integrating multiscale ecological indicators to assess ecosystem functioning in virgin Hyrcanian beech forests. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 8, 1726336. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1726336
Bauhus, J., Puettmann, K. J., & Kühne, C. (2013). Close-to-nature forest management in Europe: Does it support complexity and adaptability of forest ecosystems? In Managing forests as complex adaptive systems (pp. 187–213). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203122808
Birdsey, R. A., DellaSala, D. A., Walker, W. S., Gorelik, S. R., Rose, G., & Ramírez, C. E. (2023). Assessing carbon stocks and accumulation potential of mature forests and larger trees in US federal lands. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 5, 1074508. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.1074508
Bolker, B. M., Brooks, M. E., Clark, C. J., Geange, S. W., Poulsen, J. R., Stevens, M. H. H., & White, J. S. S. (2009). Generalized linear mixed models: a practical guide for ecology and evolution. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 24(3), 127-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2008.10.008
Burrascano, S., Keeton, W. S., Sabatini, F. M., & Blasi, C. (2013). Commonality and variability in the structural attributes of moist temperate old-growth forests: A global review. Forest Ecology and Management, 291, 458-479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.11.020
Collado, E., Piqué, M., Coello, J., de-Dios-García, J., Fuentes, C., & Coll, L. (2023). Close-to-nature management effects on tree growth and soil moisture in Mediterranean mixed forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 549, 121457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121457
Després, T., Asselin, H., Doyon, F., & Bergeron, Y. (2014). Structural and spatial characteristics of old-growth temperate deciduous forests at their northern distribution limit. Forest Science, 60(5), 871-880. https://doi.org/10.5849/forsci.13-105
Dudinszky, N., Ippi, S., Kitzberger, T., Cerón, G., & Ojeda, V. (2021). Tree size and crown structure explain the presence of cavities required by wildlife in cool-temperate forests of South America. Forest Ecology and Management, 494, 119295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119295
Edman, M., Eriksson, A. M., & Villard, M. A. (2016). The importance of large-tree retention for the persistence of old-growth epiphytic bryophyte Neckera pennata in selection harvest systems. Forest Ecology and Management, 372, 143-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.04.013
Etemad, V. (2001). Forestry Plan of Kheyrud Experimental Forest. University of Tehran, 307.
Etemad, V., Namiranian, M., Zobeiri, M., Majnounian, B., & Moradi, G. (2013). Qualitative and quantitative variation of forest stands after one period of forest management plan (case study: Namkhane District Kheyrud Forest). Journal of Forest and Wood Products, 66(3), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.22059/jfwp.2013.36110
Giambelluca, T. W., Scholz, F. G., Bucci, S. J., Meinzer, F. C., Goldstein, G., Hoffmann, W. A., & Buchert, M. P. (2009). Evapotranspiration and energy balance of Brazilian savannas with contrasting tree density. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 149(8), 1365-1376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2009.03.006
Heshmatol Vaezin, S. M., Moftakhar Juybari, M., Sadeghi, S. M. M., Banaś, J., & Marcu, M. V. (2022). The seasonal fluctuation of timber prices in Hyrcanian temperate forests, Northern Iran. Forests, 13(5), 761. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050761
Hitimana, J., Kiyiapi, J. L., & Njunge, J. T. (2004). Forest structure characteristics in disturbed and undisturbed sites of Mt. Elgon Moist Lower Montane Forest, western Kenya. Forest Ecology and Management, 194(1-3), 269-291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.02.025
Keybondori, S., Abdi, E., Deljouei, A., Cislaghi, A., Shakeri, Z., & Etemad, V. (2025). Soil-bioengineering to stabilize gravel roadside slopes in the steep Hyrcanian Forests of Northern Iran. Ecological Engineering, 214, 107569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2025.107569
Kozák, D., Svitok, M., Zemlerová, V., Mikoláš, M., Lachat, T., Larrieu, L., Paillet, Y., Buechling, A., Bače, R., Keeton, W.S. & Vítková,
L. (2023). Importance of conserving large and old trees to continuity of tree-related microhabitats. Conservation Biology, 37(3), p.e14066. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14066
Kucbel, S., Saniga, M., Jaloviar, P., & Vencurik, J. (2012). Stand structure and temporal variability in old-growth beech- dominated forests of the northwestern Carpathians: A 40-years perspective. Forest Ecology and Management, 264, 125-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.10.011
Li, Y., Li, J., & Wei, L. (2024). Stable reverse J-shaped diameter distribution occurs in an old-growth karst forest. Journal of Forestry Research, 35(1), 107. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11676-024-01763-1
Lindenmayer, D. B., Laurance, W. F., & Franklin, J. F. (2012). Global decline in large old trees. Science, 338(6112), 1305-1306. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231070
Liu, J., Xia, S., Zeng, D., Liu, C., Li, Y., Yang, W., Yang, B., Zhang, J., Slik, F., & Lindenmayer, D. B. (2022). Age and spatial distribution of the world’s oldest trees. Conservation Biology, 36(4), e13907. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13907
Lorimer, C. G., & Halpin, C. R. (2014). Classification and dynamics of developmental stages in late-successional temperate forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 334, 344-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.09.003
Lundqvist, L. (2017). Tamm review: selection system reduces long- term volume growth in Fennoscandic uneven-aged Norway spruce forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 391, 362-375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.02.011
Lutz, J. A., Larson, A. J., Swanson, M. E., & Freund, J. A. (2012). Ecological importance of large-diameter trees in a temperate mixed-conifer forest. PloS one, 7(5), e36131. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036131
Lutz, J. A., Larson, A. J., Freund, J. A., Swanson, M. E., & Bible, K. J. (2013). The importance of large-diameter trees to forest structural heterogeneity. PloS one, 8(12), e82784. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082784
Martin, T. A., Brown, K. J., Kučera, J., Meinzer, F. C., Sprugel, D. G., & Hinckley, T. M. (2001). Control of transpiration in a 220-year-old Abies amabilis forest. Forest Ecology and Management, 152(1-3), 211-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00604-6
Marvie Mohadjer, M. R. (2019). Silviculture. University of Tehran Press, 418.
Marvi Mohadjer, M. R., Zobeiri, M., Etemad, V., & Gholami, M. J. (2009). Performing the single selection method at compartment level and necessity for full inventory of tree species (case study: Gorazbon district in Kheyroud forest). Iranian Journal of Natural Resources, 61(4), 889-908.
Meinzer, F. C., Bond, B. J., Warren, J. M., & Woodruff, D. R. (2005). Does water transport scale universally with tree size?. Functional Ecology, 19(4), 558-565. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.01017.x
Moradi, M., Marvie Mohadjer, M. R., Sefidi, K., Zobiri, M., & Omidi, A. (2012). Over-mature beech trees (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) and close-to-nature forestry in northern Iran. Journal of Forestry Research, 23(2), 289-294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-012-0254-4
Mousavisangdehi, A., Oladi, R., Pourtahmasi, K., Etemad, V., Koprowski, M., & Tumajer, J. (2024). Higher temperatures promote intra-annual radial growth of Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) in the humid Hyrcanian forests. Trees, 38(6), 1569-1580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-024-02574-x
Nolet, P., Kneeshaw, D., Messier, C., & Béland, M. (2018). Comparing the effects of even-and uneven-aged silviculture on ecological diversity and processes: A review. Ecology and Evolution, 8(2), 1217-1226. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3737
O’Hara, K. L. (2014). Multiaged silviculture: Managing for complex forest stand structures. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198703068.001.0001
O’Hara, K. L. (2016). What is close-to-nature silviculture in a changing world?. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research, 89(1), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpv043
Piovesan, G., Cannon, C. H., Liu, J., & Munné-Bosch, S. (2022). Ancient trees: irreplaceable conservation resource for ecosystem restoration. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 37(12), 1025-1028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2022.09.003
R Core Team. (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 4.5.0). R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Radaei, M., & Habashi, H. (2022). The effect of harvesting intensity in the single tree selection system on mixed Hornbeam stand characteristics. Journal of Wood and Forest Science and Technology, 29(2), 137-152. https://doi.org/10.22069/JWFST.2022.20470.1975
Ripley, B., Venables, B., Bates, D. M., Hornik, K., Gebhardt, A., Firth, D., & Ripley, M. B. (2013). Package ‘mass’. Cran r, 538(113- 120), 822.
Sagheb Talebi, K., Sajedi, T., & Pourhashemi, M. (2014). Forests of Iran. A Treasure from the Past, a Hope for the Future, Springer Dordrecht, 152 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7371-4
Sefidi, K., Mohadjer, M. R. M., Mosandl, R., & Copenheaver, C. A. (2013). Coarse and fine woody debris in mature Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) forests of northern Iran. Natural Areas Journal, 33(3), 248-255. https://doi.org/10.3375/043.033.0303
Shahnaseri, G., Malekian, M., & Pourmoghadam, K. (2023). Habitat loss of the chestnut-leaved oak (Quercus castaneifolia) in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran: Impacts of anthropogenic factors on forest thinning and degradation. Global Ecology and Conservation, 46, e02600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02600
Stritih, A., Lecina-Diaz, J., Mohr, J., Schattenberg, C., Ammer, C., Anselmetto, N., Bauhus, J., Bončina, A., Garbarino, M., Hlásny, T., & Lindner, M. (2026). Can closer-to-nature forest management sustain biodiversity and ecosystem services in an uncertain future? Lessons from Central Europe. Current Forestry Reports, 12(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-025-00264-6
UNESCO. (2023). Hyrcanian Forests. URL. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1584/
Wang, X., Hao, Z., Zhang, J., Lian, J., Li, B., Ye, J., & Yao, X. (2009). Tree size distributions in an old-growth temperate forest. Oikos, 118(1), 25-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0030-1299.2008.16598.x
Westphal, C., Tremer, N., von Oheimb, G., Hansen, J., von Gadow, K., & Härdtle, W. (2006). Is the reverse J-shaped diameter distribution universally applicable in European virgin beech forests? Forest Ecology and Management, 223(1–3), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.10.057
Wirth, C., Messier, C., Bergeron, Y., Frank, D., & Fankhänel, A. (2009). Old-growth forest definitions: A pragmatic view. In Old-growth forests: Function, fate and value (pp. 11–33). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-92706-8_2
Zenner, E. K. (2004). Does old-growth condition imply high live-tree structural complexity?. Forest Ecology and Management, 195(1-2), 243-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.03.026
Zhang, Y., Yi, X., Bai, E., & Ji, L. (2016). Effects of selective harvesting and clear-cutting on community structure, volume and biomass of Korean pine and broadleaf mixed forest in Changbai Mountain. Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience, 13(9), 6344-6348. https://doi.org/10.1166/jctn.2016.5567